PART III

SYSTEMS OF PHILOSOPHY

CHAPTER VIII. NATURALISM 223

§ 102. The General Meaning of Materialism 223 § 103. Corporeal Being 224 § 104. Corporeal Processes. Hylozoism and Mechanism 225 § 105. Materialism and Physical Science 228 § 106. The Development of the Conceptions of Physical Science. Space and Matter 228 § 107. Motion and its Cause. Development and Extension of the Conception of Force 231 § 108. The Development and Extension of the Conception of Energy 236 § 109. The Claims of Naturalism 239 § 110. The Task of Naturalism 241 § 111. The Origin of the Cosmos 242 § 112. Life. Natural Selection 244 § 113. Mechanical Physiology 246 § 114. Mind. The Reduction to Sensation 247 § 115. Automatism 248 § 116. Radical Materialism. Mind as an Epiphenomenon 250 § 117. Knowledge. Positivism and Agnosticism 252 § 118. Experimentalism 255 § 119. Naturalistic Epistemology not Systematic 256 § 120. General Ethical Stand-point 258 § 121. Cynicism and Cyrenaicism 259 § 122. Development of Utilitarianism. Evolutionary Conception of Social Relations 260 § 123. Naturalistic Ethics not Systematic 262 § 124. Naturalism as Antagonistic to Religion 263 § 125. Naturalism as the Basis for a Religion of Service, Wonder, and Renunciation 265

CHAPTER IX. SUBJECTIVISM 267

§ 126. Subjectivism Originally Associated with Relativism and Scepticism 267 § 127. Phenomenalism and Spiritualism 271 § 128. Phenomenalism as Maintained by Berkeley. The Problem Inherited from Descartes and Locke 272 § 129. The Refutation of Material Substance 275 § 130. The Application of the Epistemological Principle 277 § 131. The Refutation of a Conceived Corporeal World 278 § 132. The Transition to Spiritualism 280 § 133. Further Attempts to Maintain Phenomenalism 281 § 134. Berkeley's Spiritualism. Immediate Knowledge of the Perceiver 284 § 135. Schopenhauer's Spiritualism, or Voluntarism. Immediate Knowledge of the Will 285 § 136. Panpsychism 287 § 137. The Inherent Difficulty in Spiritualism. No Provision for Objective Knowledge 288 § 138. Schopenhauer's Attempt to Universalize Subjectivism. Mysticism 290 § 139. Objective Spiritualism 292 § 140. Berkeley's Conception of God as Cause, Goodness, and Order 293 § 141. The General Tendency of Subjectivism to Transcend Itself 297 § 142. Ethical Theories. Relativism 298 § 143. Pessimism and Self-denial 299 § 144. The Ethics of Welfare 300 § 145. The Ethical Community 302 § 146. The Religion of Mysticism 303 § 147. The Religion of Individual Coöperation with God 304

CHAPTER X. ABSOLUTE REALISM 306

§ 148. The Philosopher's Task, and the Philosopher's Object, or the Absolute 306 § 149. The Eleatic Conception of Being 309 § 150. Spinoza's Conception of Substance 311 § 151. Spinoza's Proof of God, the Infinite Substance. The Modes and the Attributes 312 § 152. The Limits of Spinoza's Argument for God 315 § 153. Spinoza's Provision for the Finite 317 § 154. Transition to Teleological Conceptions 317 § 155. Early Greek Philosophers not Self-critical 319 § 156. Curtailment of Philosophy in the Age of the Sophists 319 § 157. Socrates and the Self-criticism of the Philosopher 321 § 158. Socrates's Self-criticism a Prophecy of Truth 323 § 159. The Historical Preparation for Plato 324 § 160. Platonism: Reality as the Absolute Ideal or Good 326 § 161. The Progression of Experience toward God 329 § 162. Aristotle's Hierarchy of Substances in Relation to Platonism 332 § 163. The Aristotelian Philosophy as a Reconciliation of Platonism and Spinozism 335 § 164. Leibniz's Application of the Conception of Development to the Problem of Imperfection 336 § 165. The Problem of Imperfection Remains Unsolved 338 § 166. Absolute Realism in Epistemology. Rationalism 339 § 167. The Relation of Thought and its Object in Absolute Realism 340 § 168. The Stoic and Spinozistic Ethics of Necessity 342 § 169. The Platonic Ethics of Perfection 344 § 170. The Religion of Fulfilment and the Religion of Renunciation 346

CHAPTER XI. ABSOLUTE IDEALISM 349

§ 171. General Constructive Character of Absolute Idealism 349 § 172. The Great Outstanding Problems of Absolutism 351 § 173. The Greek Philosophers and the Problem of Evil. The Task of the New Absolutism 352 § 174. The Beginning of Absolute Idealism in Kant's Analysis of Experience 354 § 175. Kant's Principles Restricted to the Experiences which they Set in Order 356 § 176. The Post-Kantian Metaphysics is a Generalization of the Cognitive and Moral Consciousness as Analyzed by Kant. The Absolute Spirit 358 § 177. Fichteanism, or the Absolute Spirit as Moral Activity 360 § 178. Romanticism, or the Absolute Spirit as Sentiment 361 § 179. Hegelianism, or the Absolute Spirit as Dialectic 361 § 180. The Hegelian Philosophy of Nature and History 363 § 181. Résumé. Failure of Absolute Idealism to Solve the Problem of Evil 365 § 182. The Constructive Argument for Absolute Idealism is Based upon the Subjectivistic Theory of Knowledge 368 § 183. The Principle of Subjectivism Extended to Reason 371 § 184. Emphasis on Self-consciousness in Early Christian Philosophy 372 § 185. Descartes's Argument for the Independence of the Thinking Self 374 § 186. Empirical Reaction of the English Philosophers 376 § 187. To Save Exact Science Kant Makes it Dependent on Mind 377 § 188. The Post-Kantians Transform Kant's Mind-in-general into an Absolute Mind 380 § 189. The Direct Argument. The Inference from the Finite Mind to the Infinite Mind 382 § 190. The Realistic Tendency in Absolute Idealism 385 § 191. The Conception of Self-consciousness Central in the Ethics of Absolute Idealism. Kant 386 § 192. Kantian Ethics Supplemented through the Conceptions of Universal and Objective Spirit 388 § 193. The Peculiar Pantheism and Mysticism of Absolute Idealism 390 § 194. The Religion of Exuberant Spirituality 393

CHAPTER XII. CONCLUSION 395

§ 195. Liability of Philosophy to Revision Due to its Systematic Character 395 § 196. The One Science and the Many Philosophies 396 § 197. Progress in Philosophy. The Sophistication or Eclecticism of the Present Age 398 § 198. Metaphysics. The Antagonistic Doctrines of Naturalism and Absolutism 399 § 199. Concessions from the Side of Absolutism. Recognition of Nature. The Neo-Fichteans 401 § 200. The Neo-Kantians 403 § 201. Recognition of the Individual. Personal Idealism 404 § 202. Concessions from the Side of Naturalism. Recognition of Fundamental Principles 405 § 203. Recognition of the Will. Pragmatism 407 § 204. Summary and Transition to Epistemology 408 § 205. The Antagonistic Doctrines of Realism and Idealism. Realistic Tendency in Empirical Idealism 409 § 206. Realistic Tendency in Absolute Idealism. The Conception of Experience 410 § 207. Idealistic Tendencies in Realism. The Immanence Philosophy 412 § 208. The Interpretation of Tradition as the Basis for a New Construction 413 § 209. The Truth of the Physical System, but Failure of Attempt to Reduce all Experience to it 414 § 210. Truth of Psychical Relations but Impossibility of General Reduction to them 415 § 211. Truth of Logical and Ethical Principles. Validity of Ideal of Perfection, but Impossibility of Deducing the Whole of Experience from it 415 § 212. Error and Evil cannot be Reduced to the Ideal 417 § 213. Collective Character of the Universe as a Whole 419 § 214. Moral Implications of Such Pluralistic Philosophy. Purity of the Good 420 § 215. The Incentive to Goodness 422 § 216. The Justification of Faith 423 § 217. The Worship and Service of God 425 § 218. The Philosopher and the Standards of the Market-Place 425 § 219. The Secularism of the Present Age 427 § 220. The Value of Contemplation for Life 428

BIBLIOGRAPHY 431

INDEX 441

PART I

APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF PHILOSOPHY