CHAPTER XX

NEW NATIONALISM

The process of adjusting national administration and laws, to meet the needs of life and business that knew no state lines, had been begun during the Roosevelt period. For its completion it was necessary that a successor be found, convinced of the Roosevelt policies and able to carry them out. Three Republicans of this type were often mentioned for the Presidency in 1908. Elihu Root had been the legal mainstay of three administrations, and had received the public commendation of Roosevelt often and without restraint. His availability for the elective office was, however, weakened by his prominence as a corporation lawyer, which would be urged against him in a campaign. William H. Taft, Secretary of War, had a wider popularity than Root; had, as federal judge, long been identified with the enforcement of law, and had been used repeatedly as the spokesman of the President. He knew the colonies as no other American knew them, and was in touch with every detail of the Panama Canal. Neither he nor Root had won a leadership in competitive politics as had the third candidate, Charles E. Hughes, who, as Governor of New York, had shown his capacity to fight professional politicians on their own ground.

In 1907, President Roosevelt announced his preference for Judge Taft, and fought off, as he had often done, suggestions that he accept another term himself. He controlled the Republican convention at Chicago, where his candidate was nominated on the first ballot. A Republican Representative from New York, James S. Sherman, was nominated for the Vice-Presidency, and the party leaders were driven to a platform of enthusiastic indorsement of the Roosevelt policies.

The Democratic party, meeting at Denver in 1908, was again under the control of the radical element, and nominated William J. Bryan for the third time. The career of Roosevelt had modified the emphasis of the Bryan reforms. "Any Republican who, after following Roosevelt, should object to Bryan as a radical, would simply be laughed at consumedly," said one of the weeklies. In the ensuing campaign both candidates professed ends that were nearly identical, and their advocates were forced to explain whether the Roosevelt policies would have a better chance under Bryan or Taft. There was no clear issue, and in each party there was a powerful minority that wanted neither of the candidates. The election of Taft had been discounted throughout the campaign, but it was accompanied by a demonstration of independent voting that revealed the weakness of party ties. Four Democratic governors were elected in States that were carried by the Republican national ticket.

The Administration of President Taft was greeted with cordial good will by the progressive elements in both parties. His courage and sincerity had never been questioned. Roosevelt was unlimited in his praise. His judicial training made impossible for him types of political activity that had made enemies for his predecessor among many conservatives, yet his devotion to policies of administrative reform was beyond dispute. He immediately fulfilled one pledge of the Republican platform by summoning Congress to meet on March 15, 1909, to revise the tariff, and on this subject he had for several years avowed a desire that revision should be downward, to remove all trace of special tariff privilege.

The movement for tariff reform had begun in the Middle West about 1902, and had spread with the feeling against the trusts. Roosevelt had indicated a sympathy with it in 1902 and 1903, and had fought Congress for tariff modification in the interest of Cuban reciprocity. But most of the party leaders had opposed tampering with the protective system. Speaker Cannon was an avowed protectionist and defended the attitude of the stand-pat tariff advocates. After 1904 the President had ceased to discuss the tariff, confining himself to other schemes for reform. He left the problem of revision to his successor.

The tariff of 1909 bore the names of Sereno E. Payne, of New York, chairman of the House Committee of Ways and Means, and Nelson W. Aldrich, chairman of the Senate Committee on Finance. As it passed the House it embodied numerous reductions from the Dingley rates. In the Senate it was reframed and became an instrument of even greater protection than the existing law. It was debated in a stronger glare of public interest than any other tariff, and its details were explained and fought by a group of Republicans who refused to accept the control of the inner circle of the party, and who were determined that the revision should be downward and sincere. They did less to affect the bill, however, than President Taft, who forced the conference committee to accept a few reductions in the rates, notably on hides and lumber, and to include a provision for levying an income tax on corporations. A constitutional amendment, authorizing a general income tax, was a part of the agreement. The bill became a law in August, 1909. "The bill, in its final form," said the Outlook, which inclined toward free trade, "is by far the most enlightened protectionist measure ever enacted in the history of the country." "I think that the present tariff," wrote Roosevelt, who had returned to private life, "is better than the last, and considerably better than the one before the last."

Whatever its relation to earlier tariffs the Payne-Aldrich Act was distasteful to the country, which had since 1897 become critical of the methods of tariff legislation. Seven Republican Senators and twenty Representatives voted against it on its final passage. These represented the Middle West and the new generation, and returned home to find their constituents generally with them in denouncing the measure as an instrument of privilege. Some of them had broken with President Taft during the debate, and the breach was deepened when the latter spoke in the West, at Winona, Minnesota, and defended the act as a compliance with the party pledge. It became apparent that the new President was unable to procure party legislation and to maintain at the same time an appearance of harmony in the party. Roosevelt had dissatisfied but had overriden the conservative wing; Taft failed to satisfy the most progressive wing and failed to silence them.

In the autumn of 1909 began a series of administrative misunderstandings that greatly embarrassed the Taft Administration. A prospective minister to China was dismissed abruptly before he left the United States, on account of a supposed indiscretion. In the Department of Agriculture there was dissension between the Secretary, James Wilson, and the chemist engaged in the enforcement of the Pure Food Law, Harvey W. Wiley. The chief of the forestry service, Gifford Pinchot, quarreled openly with the Secretary of the Interior, Richard A. Ballinger, and raised the question of the future of the policy of conservation.

The work of the forestry and reclamation services was at the center of the scheme for conservation of natural resources that had grown out of Roosevelt's conference with the governors in 1908. A subordinate of the forestry service attacked the Secretary of the Interior in 1909, charging favoritism and lack of interest in conservation. He was dismissed in September, upon order of President Taft, whereupon Collier's Weekly undertook an attack upon the President as an enemy of conservation, receiving the moral support of many of the progressives who disliked the tariff act. In January, 1910, the growing controversy led the President to dismiss Pinchot from the service, for insubordination, and Congress to erect a joint committee to investigate the Pinchot-Ballinger dispute.

The Ballinger committee ultimately vindicated the Secretary of the Interior, but the testimony taken brought out a fundamental difference between the theory of Taft, that the President could act only in accordance with the law, and that of Roosevelt, that he could do whatever was not forbidden by law. Although Taft stood by his subordinate, claiming that he and Ballinger were both active in conservation, a large section of the public believed that the aggressive movement for reform had lost momentum. What Roosevelt thought of it was impossible to learn, since he had gone to Africa in 1909, and remained outside the sphere of American politics until the summer of 1910.

The progressive Republicans revolted in 1909 and 1910 against the domination of the "stand-pat" group, and received the name "Insurgents." Senators LaFollette and Cummins, both of whom desired to be President, were the avowed leaders. In the House of Representatives, in March, 1910, the Insurgents coöperated with the Democratic minority, defeated a ruling of Speaker Cannon, and modified the House rules in order to curtail the autocracy of the presiding officer. They asked the country to believe that Taft had ceased to be progressive and had become the ally of the stand-pat interests. The split in the Republican party enabled the Democrats to carry the country in 1910, and to obtain a large majority in the House of Representatives. Champ Clark, of Missouri, and Oscar Underwood, of Alabama, both aspirants for the Democratic presidential nomination, became, respectively, Speaker and chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means in the new House. No one man controlled or led either party by his personality as Theodore Roosevelt had done; the rivalry of lesser leaders destroyed the harmony of both parties, and neither party even approached unanimity in regard to the great policies of the future. In January, 1911, the Insurgent Republicans organized a Progressive Republican League for the purpose of capturing the nomination in 1912 for one of their number, presumably Senator LaFollette.

The Taft policies differed from those of his predecessor chiefly in the method of their advocacy. Like Roosevelt, Taft had trouble in getting them enacted, and unlike Roosevelt, he failed to magnetize the people and carry them with him. He procured, however, funds for the creation of a board of tariff experts to aid in future revisions of schedules, and for a commerce court, to handle appeals in interstate commerce cases. The income tax amendment secured his support. He used his influence to prevent the seating of William Lorimer, a Senator elected from Illinois under conditions of grave scandal. The Interstate Commerce Law was revised and strengthened in 1910. An enabling act for Arizona and New Mexico was passed in 1910, under which both of these Territories became States in 1912. He continued the series of anti-trust suits begun under Roosevelt, and procured decisions ordering the dissolution of the Southern Pacific merger, the Standard Oil Company, and the Tobacco Trust, and the penalizing of many others.

In the field of administration President Taft showed an instinct for orderly and economical government. He urged upon Congress the adoption of a budget system for expenditures, and employed a body of experts to aid in reducing the cost and inefficiency of the executive departments. He extended the civil service until in 1912 only 56,000 of the 334,000 federal employees were still outside the classified service.

The foreign negotiations of the Taft Administration were most distinguished in respect to Latin-American trade, to arbitration, to neutrality, and to reciprocity. With the Latin-Americas he continued the policy of friendly support, through Philander C. Knox, his Secretary of State. The critics of this policy stigmatized it as "dollar diplomacy," but Taft and Knox defended it as leading these republics through sound finance to stable government. A protracted revolution in Mexico led to the expulsion of President Porfirio Diaz in 1911, and was followed by counter-revolutions in 1912. Throughout the disturbance Taft maintained a rigid neutrality, and induced Congress to permit him to prohibit the export of arms for sale to the belligerents. This constituted an advance upon the customary practice of neutrals, who are permitted under international law to sell munitions of war to either belligerent.

In 1908, Roosevelt had signed general arbitration treaties with Great Britain and other countries, containing the usual reservations of cases involving honor or national existence. In 1911, Taft signed yet broader treaties with Great Britain and France, providing for the arbitration of all justiciable disputes, and for a commission to determine whether disputed cases were justiciable or not. The Senate declined to ratify these agreements.

Canadian reciprocity was a part of Taft's tariff program. In 1911, he called Congress in special session to approve an agreement for a modification of the Payne-Aldrich rates with Canada. The Democratic majority in the House of Representatives supported this measure, as did enough of the regular Republicans to insure its passage. But the Insurgents opposed it as likely to injure the interests of the farmer. In September, 1911, Canada rejected the whole measure after a general election in which a fear of annexation by the United States was an important motive.

The Taft policies failed to thrill the party or the people. They were less spectacular than the evils which the muck-rakers had portrayed. They were constructive and detailed, and aroused as opponents many who had joined in the general clamor for reform. They interested the party leaders little, for these were more concerned with their own personal fates, and were not overshadowed by the President as they had been for eight preceding years. They were all conceived in the spirit of a lawyer and judge, and were passed in an alliance with the wing of the Republican party that was most impervious to the new reforms, and were hence open to the attack that they were in spirit and intent reactionary.

In June, 1910, with the Republican schism well advanced, Theodore Roosevelt returned to the United States. A few weeks later he made a speaking trip in the West, and at Osawatomie, Kansas, he laid down a platform of reform that he called "New Nationalism." This was in substance an evolution from the history of forty years. It assumed the fact of the development of business and society along national lines, and demanded that the Government meet the new problems. It believed that constitutional power already existed for most of the needed functions of government, and demanded that where the power was lacking it should be obtained by constitutional amendment. The platform was received with equally violent commendation and attack. Many Progressives hailed it as an exposition of their faith. Conservatives were prone to call it socialistic or revolutionary. It restored Roosevelt to a position of consequence in public affairs, and emphasized the fact that Taft had developed no power of popular leadership comparable to that of his friend and predecessor. It gave the Progressives hope that Roosevelt, debarred from the Presidency by his pledge and by the unwritten third-term tradition, would aid them in forcing the Republican party to nominate a Progressive in 1912.

The concrete principles of the Progressive group embraced a series of policies looking toward the destruction of ring-controlled politics. They demanded and generally concurred in the initiative and referendum, the direct primary, and the direct election of delegates to national conventions, and the direct election of United States Senators. Many of them believed in a new doctrine, the recall, which was to be applied to administrative officials, to judges, and even to judicial decisions. Woman suffrage was commonly acceptable to them.

The cause of woman suffrage had made great progress since Idaho became, in 1896, the fourth suffrage State. A modified form of suffrage in local or school elections had been allowed in many States. A new period of agitation for unrestricted woman suffrage had begun in England about 1906, and had been given advertisement by the deliberate violations of law and order by the militant suffragettes. The agitation, though not the excess, had spread to the United States. In 1910, Washington, and in 1911, California, had become woman suffrage States. By 1914, the total was raised to twelve by the addition of Arizona, Kansas, Oregon, Illinois, Nevada, and Montana.

In the winter of 1911-12, the prospect of Republican success in the next national campaign was slight. The Democrats had gained the House in 1910, and they, with the aid of Progressive Republican votes, had passed and sent up to the President several tariff bills, reducing the rates, schedule by schedule. Everyone of these had been vetoed, each veto tending to convince the Progressives that Taft was conservative, if not stand-pat in his sentiments. The Progressive Republicans were pledged to work against the renomination of Taft, and were unlikely to support him vigorously, if renominated. Many regular Republicans believed he could not be reëlected. The section of the party that desired a Progressive President became larger than the group that believed in LaFollette, and demands that Roosevelt return were heard from many sources.

In February, 1912, an appeal signed by seven Republican governors, all of whom dwelt in States now likely to go Democratic, urged Roosevelt to withdraw his pledge and become a candidate for the nomination. The demand was concurred in by admirers who believed that only he could bring about the new nationalism, by Progressives who distrusted LaFollette's capacity to win, and by Republicans who wanted to win at any price and saw only defeat through Taft. On February 24, Roosevelt announced his willingness to accept the nomination, explained that his previous refusal to accept another term had meant another consecutive term, and entered upon a canvass for delegates to the Republican National Convention.

The campaign before the primaries was made difficult because in most States the Republican machinery was in the hands of politicians who disliked Roosevelt, whether they cared for Taft or not. It began too late for the voters to overturn the state and national committees, or to register through the existing party machinery their new desire. It brought out the defects in methods of nomination which direct primaries were expected to remedy, and in some States public opinion was strong enough to compel a hasty passage of primary laws to permit the overturn of the convention system. The LaFollette candidacy was deprived of most of its supporters, through the superior popularity of Roosevelt.

When the convention met at Chicago on June 18, 1912, there were some 411 Roosevelt delegates among the 1078, and more than 250 more who, though instructed for Taft, were contested by Roosevelt delegations. When the national committee overruled the claims of these, Roosevelt denounced their action as "naked theft." He had definitely allied himself with the wing of the party that opposed Taft. When the convention, presided over by Elihu Root, and supported by nearly all the men whom Roosevelt had brought into public prominence, finally renominated Taft and Sherman, Roosevelt asserted that no honest man could vote for a ticket based upon dishonor. The Roosevelt Republicans did not bolt the convention, but when it adjourned they held a mass convention of their own, were addressed by their candidate, and went home to organize a new Progressive party.

The Democratic counsels were affected by the break-up of the Republican party and the success of its conservative wing at Chicago. They met at Baltimore the next week, with Bryan present and active, but not himself a candidate. They had to choose among Clark, the Speaker, Underwood, the chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means, and Governors Harmon, of Ohio, Marshall, of Indiana, and Woodrow Wilson, of New Jersey.

The last of these had risen into national politics since 1910. He had long been known as a brilliant essayist and historian. He was of Virginian birth, and had left the presidency of Princeton University to become Democratic candidate for Governor of New Jersey in 1910. He had shown as governor great capacity to lead his party in the direction of the progressive reforms. He differed in these less from Roosevelt and LaFollette than he or they did from the reactionaries in their own parties. "The President is at liberty, both in law and conscience," he had written long ago, "to be as big a man as he can. His capacity will set the limit.... He has no means of compelling Congress except through public opinion." Unembarrassed by previous attachment to any faction of the Democratic party, with a clear record against special privilege and corporation influence in politics, and supported obstinately by Bryan and the young men who had urged his candidacy, Woodrow Wilson was nominated on the forty-sixth ballot, with Governor Thomas Marshall for Vice-President. The conservative nomination by the Republicans had thrown the Democrats into the hands of their radical wing.

The Progressives held a convention in Chicago on August 5, and nominated Theodore Roosevelt and Governor Hiram Johnson, of California. Their platform included every important reform seriously urged, and was built around the idea of social justice and human rights. They denied that either of the old parties was fitted to carry on the work of progress. In the campaign their candidates and speakers revealed the vigor and the bitterness of the former Insurgents.

The schism threw the election into the hands of the Democrats, who retained the House, gained the Senate, and elected Wilson, though the latter received fewer votes than Bryan had received in each of his three attempts. The struggle was one of personalities, since few openly attacked the avowed aim of progressive legislation. The popularity of Roosevelt detached many Democratic votes from Wilson, but his unpopularity among Republicans who feared him and Progressive Republicans who resented his return to politics, drove to Wilson votes that would otherwise have gone to Taft. Taft received only eight electoral votes in November, and ran far behind both his rivals in the popular count. More than four million votes were polled by the new third party in an independent movement that was without precedent. The Socialist vote for Debs rose from 420,000 in 1908 to 895,000 in 1912.

The last year of the administration of President Taft was overshadowed by the party war, and reduced in effectiveness by the Democratic control of the House. The prosecutions of the trusts were continued, a parcel post was established as a postal savings bank had been, the income tax amendment became part of the Constitution, and an amendment for the direct election of Senators made progress.

When Woodrow Wilson succeeded to the Presidency he formed a cabinet headed by William J. Bryan as Secretary of State, and including only Democrats of progressive antecedents. He called Congress in April, 1913, to revise the tariff once more, and overturned a precedent of a century by delivering to it his message in person. With almost no breathing space for eighteen months, he kept Congress at its task of fulfilling his party's pledges as he interpreted them.

Tariff, currency, and trust control were the main topics upon which the Democrats had avowed positive convictions, and upon which the great mass of progressive citizens, regardless of party affiliation, demanded legislation. One by one these were taken up, the President revealing powers of coercive leadership hitherto unseen in his office. Only the fact that non-partisan opinion was generally with him made possible the mass of constructive legislation that was placed upon the books. The tariff, which became a law on October 3, 1913, was a revision whose downward tendency was beyond dispute. The Federal Reserve Act, revising the banking laws in the interest of flexibility and decentralization, was signed on December 23 of the same year. In January, 1914, President Wilson laid before Congress his plan of trust control, advocating a commission with powers over trade coördinate with those of the Interstate Commerce Commission, and an elaboration of the anti-trust laws to deal with unfair practices and interlocking directorates. The Federal Trade Commission and Clayton Anti-Trust bills fulfilled these recommendations in the autumn of 1914. The Panama Canal Act of 1912 had meanwhile been revised so as to eliminate a preference in rates to American vessels which the President believed to be in violation of the guaranty of equal treatment pledged in the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. With a more portentous list of constructive laws than had been passed by any Congress since 1890, the Democratic majority allowed an adjournment on October 24, 1914, and its members went home to sound their constituents upon the state of the Union.

The passage of economic laws had called for tact and force upon the part of the President, whose party, like the Republican party, was without a clear vision of its policy and included many reactionaries. Added embarrassments were found in the continuance of civil strife in Mexico. Here, shortly before the inauguration of President Wilson, there had been another revolution, followed by the elevation by the army of General Victoriano Huerta to the Presidency. The followers of the deposed Madero went into revolt at once, and the new Government was refused recognition by the United States on the ground that it was not a Government de facto, and that its title was smirched with blood. Patiently and stubbornly the United States held to its refusal to recognize the results of conspiracy in Mexico. In April, 1914, Vera Cruz was occupied by American forces in retaliation for acts of insult on the part of the Huerta régime, and in July the steady pressure of "watchful waiting" brought about the resignation of the dictator. The Constitutionalists, succeeding him, quarreled shortly among themselves, but the danger from Mexico appeared to be lessening as the year advanced.

From Europe came other embarrassments in August. Here, the policy of national armament which had been adopted in the middle of the nineteenth century, reached its logical outcome in a great war which was precipitated by Austria in an attack upon Servia. Russia immediately came to the aid of her Slavonic kinsmen, and upon her Germany declared war on August 1. In a few more days Great Britain and France had joined Russia against the German-Austrian alliance, and most of Europe was at war. To bring home the thousands of American tourists whom the war had reduced to suffering was the first work of the administration. The American ministers in Europe became the custodians of the affairs of the belligerents in every enemy country, and with the aid of all the belligerent nations Americans were carried home. After this came the problems of neutrality and American business. Suffering, due to the stoppage of the export trade, particularly that of cotton, brought wide depression throughout the United States. A new law for the transfer of foreign-built vessels to American registry, and another for federal insurance against war risks, were hurriedly passed, and the question of a public-owned line of merchant ships was discussed. All these problems were distracting the attention of the United States when Congress brought to an end its prolonged labors, and adjourned.

The congressional election of 1914 was profoundly affected by the European war. Early in the year it appeared that conservative opposition to the Democratic program was growing, and that the Democratic majority was likely to be cut down. The Progressive party appeared to be weakening, and the control of the Republican party was settling back among those Republicans against whom the Insurgents had made their protest. But President Wilson's precise neutrality won the confidence of all parties, and although conservatives like Cannon, of Illinois, and Penrose, of Pennsylvania, won over Democrats and Progressives alike in a few cases, he retained for the Sixty-fourth Congress a working majority in the House and an enlarged majority in the Senate. His election in 1912 had been, in part, due to the dispersion of Republican strength caused by the Progressive schism; in 1914, the influence of the Progressives was negligible and the Democrats retained their power in the face of the whole Republican attack.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

Between 1909 and 1914, the Outlook, to which Theodore Roosevelt had been an occasional contributor, and which had been a strong supporter of Republican policies since 1898, was the regular organ through which Mr. Roosevelt addressed the public, over his signature as Contributing Editor. In a similar way William J. Bryan reached his followers through the Commoner (1900-), and Robert M. LaFollette through his LaFollette's Weekly (1909-). Collier's Weekly became a center of the adverse criticism of President Taft. All of these, as well as the more general periodicals, are indispensable sources for the period, but are so highly partisan as to need constant correction for prejudice. The election of 1908 is treated in Stanwood's History of the Presidency from 1897 to 1909, while that of 1912 is excellently described in the New International Year Book for 1912. The theories of the new nationalism are in T. Roosevelt, The New Nationalism (1910).

INDEX

Adams, Charles Francis, 55, 56.

Agricultural colleges, beginning of, 17.

Agriculture, changes in, 14, 15; in the South after the War, 39, 40; Department of, created, 142, 157; main reliance of Western pioneers, 149, 151; discontent in North and West, 178, 179, 184; depression of, in South, 195; diversified by decline of cotton values, 204, 205.

Aguinaldo, Emilio, 267, 278.

Alabama Claims, the, 55, 56.

Alaska, gold mines in, 241; settlement of boundary, 284, 285.

Aldrich, Nelson W., 118, 326.

Algeciras, United States in conference at, 318.

Alger, Russell A., 253, 274.

Allison, William B., 89, 255.

Altgeld, Gov. John P., 222, 279.

Alverstone, Lord Chief Justice, 285, 286.

Amendment, the Thirteenth, 33, 42, 48.

Amendment, the Fourteenth, 42, 43, 48, 196, 197.

Amendment, the Fifteenth, 46, 47, 48, 196, 198.

American diplomacy, 286.

American Federation of Labor, 121, 183, 208.

American Railroad Union, 222.

Ames, Adelbert, 47.

Angell, James B., 60.

Anti-Contract Labor Law, 135.

Anti-imperialism, 278, 279.

Anti-monopolists, 168, 169.

Anti-trust literature, 166.

Arbitration, 255, 256; treaties refused by Senate, 331, 332.

Arizona, a Territory, 21, 152, 154; becomes a State, 330.

Army of the United States, at outbreak of Spanish War, 266; in poor condition during the war, 269-72, 274; later service in Cuba, 282.

Arrears of Pension Act, 137.

Arthur, Chester A., removed from office by Hayes, 87, 98, 103; Vice-President with Garfield, 99; opposes Garfield, 103; as President, reorganizes his Cabinet, 106, 109; his first message, 109, 110; recommends civil service reform, 113, 114; approves revision of the tariff, 114; vetoes River and Harbor Bill, 117, 127; hopes for renomination, 126; reasons for failure of his candidacy, 126, 127; and the Panama Canal, 144.

Australian ballot, 248.

Ballinger, Richard A., 328, 329.

Ballot reform, 248, 249.

Bayard, Thomas F., 134.

Belknap, William W., 62.

Bellamy, Edward, 167, 168, 188.

Benton, Thomas H., 21.

Bimetallism, 226; plea for international, 227, 234.

Black Belt, the, 202, 203.

Blaine, James G., improper official conduct of, 62, 81; the Mulligan letters, 82; and the proposal to extend pardon to Jefferson Davis, 83; candidate for Presidential nomination (1880), 98; his personal following large, 102; Secretary of State under Garfield, 102, 103, 106; plans for Pan-American Congress, 106; his large following among Irish, 124, 133; nominated for President (1884), 127, 128; and the Mugwumps, 130; caricatures of, 132; defeated, 133; replies to Cleveland's message on tariff reduction (1887), 169; refuses to be Presidential candidate again, 169; Secretary of State under Harrison, 171, 172; urges reciprocity, 175; exchanges views with Gladstone on protective tariff, 189; in the seal fisheries controversy, 212; resigns Secretaryship, 213; death, 214.

Blair, Francis P., Jr., 31.

Bland, Richard P., 88, 89, 173, 217.

Bland-Allison Bill, 181, 217, 218.

"Bloody shirt," the, 83, 100, 201.

Bonaparte, Charles J., 320.

"Boss," the, 245, 246; power of, 247, 248.

Boxer outbreak in China, 281.

Brady, Thomas J., 104, 105.

Bristow, Benjamin, 81.

Brown, B. Gratz, 56.

Bryan, William Jennings, nominated for President, 237; wages vigorous campaign, 238; defeated, 240; colonel in Spanish War, 266; renominated for President, 279; denounces imperialism, 279; again defeated, 280; a lay preacher on political subjects, 305; nominated for Presidency third time, 325; made Secretary of State by Wilson, 338.

Bryce, James, his American Commonwealth, 188, 189, 246; influence of, 247; ambassador from Great Britain, 318.

Buckner, Simon B., 238.

Burchard, Rev. Samuel D., 133.

Bureau of Corporations, valuable reports of, 311, 312.

Butler, Benjamin F., advocates the Greenback movement, 30, 66; aims at Governorship of Massachusetts, 61; his relation to the "salary grab," 62; Anti-Monopoly candidate for Presidency, 131, 132.

Canadian reciprocity, 332.

Cannon, Joseph G., defeated for Congress, 185; Speaker of the House, 304, 305; a stand-pat protectionist, 327; ruling as Speaker defeated, 329; returned to Congress, 342.

Carlisle, John G., 138, 139.

Carnegie, Andrew, 297.

"Carpet-baggers," 43, 45, 49, 194.

Centennial Exposition, at Philadelphia, 73.

Cervera, Admiral, 267, 268, 271, 272.

Chase, Salmon P., wishes to be President, 3, 4, 31, 56; urges creation of bonded debt to provide for war expenses, 5; inaugurates a system of national banks, 27.

Chile, threatened war with, 212, 213.

Chinese, coolies imported into California, 25; and Irish, 94; harried, 122.

Chinese Exclusion Bill, 122, 127.

Choate, Joseph H., 318.

Christian Science, rise of, 190.

Churchill, Winston, writes Coniston, 310, 311.

Cities, growth of, 14; in the New South, 205; government of, 246.

Civil Rights Bill, 196, 197.

Civil Service Act, 113, 117.

Civil Service reform, 86, 110; growth of, 112, 113, 114; further extended by Cleveland, 134, 235; and by Taft, 331.

Civil War, the, influence of its military successes, 1; benefits of the four years of, 18; new type brought into politics by, 78; veterans of, 136.

Clark, Champ, 329, 330, 336.

Clayton Anti-trust Bill, 339.

Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 134, 144; inadequate, 286.

Cleveland, Grover, Mayor of Buffalo and Governor of New York, 130; favored by the Independents, 130, 131; nominated for Presidency, 131; his character attacked, 132; elected and inaugurated, 133; his Cabinet, 133; Lowell's tribute to, 134; meets new problems, 135; vetoes pension bills, 137; troubled by divided administration, 138, 139, 140; signs "omnibus" bill for new States, 152; his emphasis on tariff reduction, 169; renominated, 170; defeated by Harrison, 171; again nominated for Presidency, 214, 215; and elected, 215; opposes free silver and the silver basis, 219, 229, 230; loses influence with Western Democrats, 220; refuses to sign Wilson Bill, 221; sends federal troops to Chicago, 221, 222; splits Democratic party, 223; in Venezuela boundary dispute, 230, 231; abandoned by his party, 235; dies in Princeton, 236; tries to maintain neutrality in Cuban revolt, 261, 262.

Cobden Club, and British gold, 139.

Coin's Financial School, 229.

Colfax, Schuyler, Vice-President with Grant, 37, 57, 61.

Colorado, Territory, 20; becomes a State, 73, 74, 149.

Commissioner of Labor, 122.

Conkling, Roscoe, 81, 87; disciplined by Hayes, 98; fights for Grant, 99; resigns from Senate, 103.

Conservation movement, 320, 328.

Consumers' League, the, 250.

Cooke, Jay, his connection with panic of 1873, 62, 63, 64.

Cornell, Alonzo B., 98, 103.

Cortelyou, George B., 302, 306.

Cotton, the staple crop of the Old South, 149; hundredth anniversary of first export celebrated, 203; overproduction, 204.

Cowboys, develop a folk-song literature, 150.

Coxey, Jacob S., 222.

Crédit Mobilier, scandal of, 61.

Cripple Creek, great miners' strike at, 301.

Crisp, Charles F., 186, 220.

Cuba, insurrections in, 258; revolutionary government in New York, 260; number of Spanish troops in, 260; filibustering parties, 261; Congress favors recognition of belligerency, 262; autonomy proposed, 263; Congress recognizes independence of, 264; blockaded, 267, 268; freed from Spain, 273; sanitary improvement in, 282; adopts a constitution, 282; makes reciprocity treaty with United States, 283.

Cullom, Shelby M., 158, 221.

Cummins, Gov. Albert B., 303; leader of Insurgent Republicans, 329.

Curtis, George William, leader in civil-service reform, 112, 128; a Mugwump, 129.

Custer, Gen. George A., 86.

Czar of Russia, calls conference on disarmament, 283.

Dakota Territory, 21; made into two States, 152.

Darwin, Charles, his influence on religious thought, 190.

Davenport, Homer C., 252.

Davis, Judge David, 109.

Davis, Henry G., 306.

Davis, Jefferson, 83, 106.

Dawes Act, the, awarding lands to Indians in severalty, 142, 151, 319.

Day, William R., 253, 273.

Debs, Eugene V., 222; Social Democratic candidate for President, 301, 338.

De Lesseps, Ferdinand M., 144.

DeLome, Señor, criticizes McKinley, 263, 264.

Democratic party, the, differences in, during the Civil War, 2, 3; Chicago convention (1864), 4, 5; nominates Seymour (1868), 31; gains control of readmitted Southern States, 52, 54; nominates Greeley (1872), 57; weakened by its past, 79; nominates Tilden (1876), 80, 81; gets plurality of popular vote, 83; gains control of the House (1874), 87; nominates Hancock (1880), 99; gains the Senate (1878), 108; loses the House (1880), 108; regains it (1882), 117; elects Cleveland (1884), 130-133; on tariff revision, 138, 220, 221; resists demands for statehood, 152; casts plurality of votes in 1888, but loses all branches of government, 171; regains the House (1890), 186; reëlects Cleveland and wins the Senate (1892), 215; split by free silver and tariff questions, 228, 229, 232; loses both Senate and House (1894), 229; nominates Bryan on free-silver platform (1896), 237; denounces imperialism and renominates Bryan (1900), 279; nominates Parker on conservative platform (1904), 305, 306; nominates Bryan for third time (1908), 325; regains the House (1910), 329, 330; elects Wilson (1912), 337, 338.

Department of Agriculture, 142, 157.

Department of Commerce and Labor, 122, 302.

Dependent Pension Act, 174.

Dewey, Commodore George, 265; destroys Spanish fleet at Manila, 267.

Diaz, Porfirio, expelled from Mexico, 331.

Dingley, Nelson, 253, 254.

Dingley Bill, the, 254, 255, 303, 304.

Dollar diplomacy, 331.

Donnelly, Ignatius, 209.

Dorsey, Senator Stephen W., in star route frauds, 104, 127.

Du Bois, W.E.B., 202.

Eads, James B., 206.

Eaton, Dorman B., 113.

Edmunds, George F., 99, 128.

Education Board, General, incorporated by Congress, 201.

Educational Board, Southern, organized, 201.

Egan, Patrick, Minister to Chile, 212, 213.

Eight-hour day, 135, 136.

Electoral Commission, the, 84.

Eliot, Charles W., 60.

Elkins, Stephen B., 127, 128.

English, William H., 99.

Equitable Life Insurance Company, investigation of, 312.

Factories, American, growth of, 14, 15, 16; influenced by inventions, 95.

Fairbanks, Charles W., Vice-President with Roosevelt, 305.

Farmers, condition of, in North and South, contrasted, 178; discontent keenest in West, 179; experimental, 180; demand cheaper money, 181; desire coöperation, 182; believe charges against both political parties, 185; value of vote of dissatisfied, 193.

Farmers' Alliance, the, in South and West, 183, 184, 192, 193; undermines Republicans in West, 185; attempts union with Knights of Labor, 186, 187; splits white vote in the South, 192, 193, 196; used to express Southern discontent, 195; holds national convention at St. Louis, 208; merged in People's Party, 209.

Farms, American, size of, 40, 41, 95; increase in number, 149, 150; decrease in size of Southern, 194; number of, 194.

Farragut, Admiral David G., 5.

Fava, Baron, Italian Minister at Washington, 213.

Federal Reserve Act, 339.

Federal Trade Commission, 339.

Field, James G., 211.

Fisk, James, Jr., 60.

Folger, Charles J., 127.

Folk, Joseph W., 311.

Force Bill, the, 200, 201.

Ford, Paul Leicester, The Honorable Peter Stirling, 132.

Ford, Worthington C., 254.

Forestry service, 328.

Free lands, disappearance of, marks new period, 154, 155.

Free passes, on interstate railroads, forbidden by law, 313.

Free silver, demanded by Populists, 209, 210; agitation for, 226, 228; textbook of, 229; fight for, in Republican convention (1896), 234, 235; demanded by Democratic convention, 236.

Freedmen's Bureau, 34, 201; work of, 42, 43, 45.

Frelinghuysen, Frederick T., 106, 109, 134.

Frémont, John C., candidate for the Presidency, 3, 4; arrested in France, 60; charged with land frauds, 60, 61.

"Frenzied finance," 310.

Frick, Henry C., 299.

"Full dinner pail, the," 280.

Gage, Lyman J., 253.

Garfield, James A., nominated for Presidency (1880), 99; forged letters against, 101, 104, 105, 122; sketch of, 101; his Cabinet, 102; trouble with Conkling, 103; death of, 105, 108; and the Panama Canal, 144.

Garland, Augustus H., 133.

George, Henry, 188.

Georgia, difficulties with Congress, 47, 48.

Gilman, Daniel Coit, 60.

Gladden, Washington, 310.

Gladstone, William E., 189.

Godkin, Edwin L., editor of the Nation, 59, 67, 85; and civil service reform, 112.

Goethals, Major George W., engineer of Canal Zone, 317.

Gold, at a premium, 27; hoarded, 218; great increase in production of, 241.

Gold dollar, ratio to silver, 9; value in greenbacks, 10, 29.

Gorgas, Col. William C., chief sanitary officer of Canal Zone, 317.

Gould, Jay, 60, 294.

Grand Army of the Republic, used for procuring pensions, 136, 137.

Grandfather clause, the, 200.

Granger Laws, the, 68, 70, 157; constitutionality of, 71, 72.

Granger movement, the, 67, 68, 183; relations with the panic of 1873, 72; doctrine established by, 157.

Grant, Ulysses S., the coveted candidate of both parties, 36; general rejoicing in his election, 37; inaugurated in 1869, 46; his first term ends unsatisfactorily, 55; success with the Alabama claims, 55, 56; renominated, 57; various unsavory episodes of his years as President, 60, 62; vetoes the Inflation Bill, 66; reëlection of (1872), 75; receives scanty support for a third term, 81, 98, 99; and civil service reform, 112.

Greeley, Horace, nominated for President by Liberal Republicans, 56; a quaint political figure, 57; quoted, 89.

Greenback movement, the, advocates of, 30, 65, 66; Eastern opinion of, contrasted with Western, 68; and silver inflation, 88, 180, 181.

Greenbacks, 9; value of, 10; depreciation of, 27; withdrawal of, 28; further retirement of, forbidden by law, 30; rising in value, 65; issued during panic of 1873, 66.

Guam, ceded to United States, 273.

Guiteau, William B., 105.

Hadley, Pres. Arthur T., 310.

Hague, the, court of arbitration at, 283; Venezuelan claims referred to, 284; second conference, 318.

Hancock, Gen. Winfield Scott, 80, 99, 100, 101.

Hanna, Marcus Alonzo, raises funds for Republicans, 102, 233, 238, 239; appointed Senator, 252; helps settle coal strike, 300, 302; grows in popularity, 302, 303; death, 304.

Harmon, Gov. Judson, 336.

Harriman, Edward H., 294, 295.

Harrison, Benjamin, nominated for Presidency, 169; elected as a minority President, 171, 211; friction with Chile, 212, 213; renominated, 214; defeated, 215, 216.

Hawaiian Islands, 273, 274, 278.

Hay, John, on McKinley, 251; Secretary of State, 273, 282; career of, 281.

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, for Isthmian canal, 286, 287.

Hayes, Rutherford B., receives nomination for President, 82; difficulties of his election, 83, 84; alienates many Republicans by his attitude toward the South, 85; his troubles with Democratic congress, 87; removes Chester A. Arthur from office, 87, 98, 103; financial policy of his administration, 89, 90; a new period of growth begun during his term of office, 90, 92; end of his term, 97, 102; and the Panama Canal, 144; becomes head of Slater fund, 201.

Hearst, William R., 305, 312.

Hendricks, Thomas A., candidate for Vice-President, 80, 81, 131.

Hepburn Railway Bill, the, 315.

Hill, Gov. David B., 214, 215, 248.

Hill, James J., 295, 296.

Hobart, Garrett P., Vice-President with McKinley, 234; dies in office, 280.

Homestead Act, the, 21, 155.

Hopkins, Johns, 60.

Howells, William Dean, 188.

Huerta, Victoriano, President of Mexico, 340.

Hughes, Charles E., exposes wrongdoing of insurance companies, 312; mentioned for Presidency, 324.

Hull House, 251.

Humphreys, Benjamin G., 46.

Husbandry, Patrons of, 193.

Idaho, becomes a Territory, 21; admitted to the Union, 152.

Immigration movement, the, influences of, 123, 124.

Income tax, 221, 327, 338.

Indians, removal of, 22, 25; outbreaks of, 25, 86; Dawes Bill, 142, 151, 319.

Industrial Commission, 298.

Industrial consolidation, evolves new type of trust, 297, 299.

Industrial revival, after 1897, 293, 294.

Industrial revolution, effects of, 95.

Inflation Bill, the, 66.

Ingersoll, Robert G., quoted, 92.

Initiative and referendum, 249, 250.

Interstate Commerce Act, the, 142, 158, 159; commission created, 159, 160; influence of rebate system on, 165; had little immediate effect, 180; an imperfect statute, 314; strengthened by Congress, 315, 330.

Irons, Martin, 135.

Irrigation, 142, 291.

Italians, lynched in New Orleans, 213.

Jackson, Andrew, 8, 111.

James, Thomas L., 102, 103, 104.

Japan, at war with Russia, 317.

Johnson, Andrew, candidate for the Vice-Presidency, 4; becomes President upon death of Lincoln, 32; opposition of Congress to, 33, 34; impeached by House, 35; acquitted, 36; vetoes arbitrary acts of Congress, 48.

Johnson, Gov. Hiram, 337.

Johnson, Reverdy, 55.

Journalism, expansion of, 162; reorganized in the later nineties, 311.

Kansas City, important as meeting place of railways, 150, 151.

Kearney, Dennis, 94, 124.

Keifer, J. Warren, 108.

Kelly, John, 131.

Kerr, Michael C., 108.

Kipling, Rudyard, The White Man's Burden, 274.

Knickerbocker Trust Company, suspension of, 322.

Knights of Labor, secret society in the East, 94; meet with disfavor, 121; demands of, 122; fight the Gould railways, 135; success of, 183; union with Farmers' Alliance, 186, 187; in Pullman strike, 222.

Knox, Philander C., 296, 320, 331.

Ku-Klux Klan, the, 52.

Labor, tariff supposed to protect, 119; Commissioner of, 122; Bureau of, 135; danger from European pauper, 139; becomes better united, 299. See also Knights of Labor, Strikes.

La Follette, Robert M., defeated for Congress, 185; works out a system of primaries, 249; in the Senate debate on railroads, 315; leader of Insurgent Republicans, 329; possible Presidential candidate, 330, 335, 336.

Lamar, L.Q.C., 133.

Land grants, to railroads, 22, 24, 148, 156; discontinued, 143.

Land laws, difficulty in enforcing, 155, 156.

Lawson. Thomas W., 310.

Lawton, Gen. Henry W., 271.

Liberal Republicans, secede in 1872 and nominate Greeley and Brown, 56; platform of, 56, 57; in Garfield's administration, 102; favor civil service reform and tariff revision, 112, 116, 126; put Edmunds forward for Presidential candidate (1884), 128.

Lincoln, Abraham, his view in regard to the spoils system, 2; aims to develop a Union sentiment, 2, 3; aided by excesses of Democrats, 4, 5; his use of offices, 111, 112.

Literature in United States, 187, 188; periodical, 189, 190; religious, 190.

Lloyd, Henry D., 116, 166, 167.

Lodge, Henry Cabot, as an independent, 128; supports Blaine, 130; approves the Force Bill, 200, 201.

Logan, John A., 128.

Lorimer, William, 330.

Lowell, James Russell, quoted, 54, 59; on Cleveland, 134.

McClellan, Gen. George B., 3, 5.

McClure, S.S., 311.

McCulloch, Hugh, 28, 29.

McEnery, Samuel D., 254.

McKinley, William, his Tariff Bill, 172, 173, 174, 175; accepts principle of reciprocity, 175; defeated for Congress, 185; Governor of Ohio, 214; "advance agent of prosperity," 232, 241; a tactful Congressman, 233; nominated for President (1896), 234; makes no personal campaign, 239; elected, 240; his election a victory for sound money, 241; calls special session of Congress for new tariff, 242; inaugurated as President, 251; his theory of the office, 252; action in the Cuban matter, 262, 264; reëlected President, 280; murdered, 282.

McKinley Bill, the, 173, 174, 215, 216; sugar clause a notable feature of, 175; opposition to, 184.

MacVeagh, Wayne, 102.

Machinery, influence of, 15, 16, 95.

Mahone, William, 109.

Maine, the, blown up in Havana harbor, 264.

Marshall, Thomas R., nominated by Democrats for Vice-Presidency, 337.

Merritt, Gen. Wesley, 267.

Mexico, revolutions in, 331, 340.

Miles, Gen. Nelson A., on the results of drought, 182; commander of army in Spanish War, 269; invades Porto Rico, 272.

Mills, Roger Q., tariff leader, 139.

Mills Bill, the, 139, 140, 169, 170.

Mining camps, rapid development of, 20, 21, 22.

Mississippi, the process of reconstruction in, 46, 47; disqualifies negroes, 198, 199.

Mississippi River Commission, 206.

Mitchell, John, 300.

"Molly Maguires," 94, 121.

Monroe Doctrine, in Venezuela case, 230, 231, 284.

Montana, created a Territory, 21; becomes a State, 152.

Morgan, J. Pierpont, 295, 321.

Mormons, 20; make a prosperous Territory in Utah, 154.

Morton, Levi P., Vice-President with Harrison, 169.

Morton, Oliver P., war Governor of Indiana, 81.

Muck-raking, 315, 316.

Mugwumps, 129, 130.

Mulligan letters, the, 82.

Murchison letter, the, 170, 171.

Nast, Thomas, cartoonist, 50, 57, 86, 132.

National Labor Union, 208.

National Planters' Association, 203.

Navy, of the United States, at outbreak of Spanish War, 265; sent round the world without mishap, 319.

Negro, the, would not work at close of war, 40; a social and economic problem, 41, 42; made a voter by Congress, 43, 45, 48; elimination of control by, 51, 52, 54; a factor in Republican national convention, 98, 99; becomes a farm owner, 194; suppressed outside the law, 196; bad qualities of, 198; practically disfranchised in South, 199, 200; advances in literacy, 202; distribution of, 202, 203; Roosevelt's attitude toward, 289, 290.

Newlands Reclamation Act, 291.

New Mexico, 152, 154; becomes a State, 330.

New South, the, has but one political party of consequence, 192; dissatisfied farmer vote in, 193; disintegration of plantations, 194; oppressed by its agricultural system, 195; practically disfranchises negroes, 196-200; education in, 201, 202; border traits of, 202; a modern industrial community, 203; development of cities, 205.

Nez Percés, outbreak of, 86.

Nicaragua Canal, 134, 286.

North, S.N.D., and the Dingley Bill, 254.

North Dakota, admitted to Union, 152.

Northern Pacific Railroad, 143, 295; and panic of 1873, 63, 65; finished under direction of Henry Villard, 144.

Northern Securities Company, 296, 299.

Oklahoma, Indians colonized in, 151; opened to white settlers, 151; becomes a State, 319.

Olney, Richard, 230, 231.

Oregon, the, spectacular voyage of, 274, 286.

Overproduction, menace of, 96.

Palmer, John M., 238.

Panama, Republic of, 288.

Panama Canal, begun by De Lesseps, 144, 286; determined on by Congress and President Roosevelt, 287, 288; Panama grants concession, 289; first boats pass through, 289; dispute over sea-level and lock systems, 316-17.

Pan-American Conference at Rio de Janeiro, 318.

Pan-American Congress, 106, 109.

Panic of 1857, the, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12.

Panic of 1873, the, 62-74; Jay Cooke's connection with, 62-65; real causes of, 64, 65; reduces revenues, 115; often attributed to low rates of Wilson Bill, 254.

Parker, Judge Alton B., Democratic candidate for President (1904), 305; defeated, 306.

Payne, Sereno E., 326.

Peabody, George, creates fund to relieve negro illiteracy, 201.

Pendleton, George H., 30, 31.

Penrose, Boies, 253, 342.

Pension Bureau, 137; important through alliance with the soldiers, 172.

Pensions, influence of soldier vote on, 136; for service only, 137; amounts spent on, 137, 138; system criticized by Southern farmers, 178; used millions of the national surplus, 216.

People's Party. 184; to right all wrongs of the plain people, 186, 187; becomes a finished organization, 208, 209; demands of, 210.

Petroleum trust, 164, 165.

Philippine Islands, ceded to United States, 273; revolt in, under Aguinaldo, 278.

Pierpont, Francis A., 47.

Pike, James S., author of The Prostrate State, 51.

Pinchot, Gifford, 328.

Pious Fund dispute, the, 283.

Platt, Thomas C., resigns from Senate, 103; claims promise of Secretaryship under Harrison, 172; offended by Harrison, 213; Senator from New York, 253; opposes nomination of Roosevelt for governor, 277; aids Roosevelt boom for Vice-Presidency, 280.

Polygamy, in Utah, 154.

Populism, origin of, 208.

Populists, demands of, 210; carry four States in Presidential election (1892), 216; caricatures of, 223; fuse with Democrats, 237, 238; favor direct legislation, 249, 250.

Porto Rico, invaded by United States troops, 272; ceded to United States, 273; Territorial government provided, 278.

Post-office, the, corruption in, 103, 104, 105, 113, 114.

Potter, Bishop Henry C., 246.

Powderly, Terence V., 121, 122, 135.

Practical politics, 110.

Preëmption Law, the, 21, 155, 156.

Presidential Succession Act, 105.

Primaries, direct, 249, 335.

Progressive Republicans, revolt, 329; organize a League, 330; principles of, 333; oppose renomination of Taft, 334; urge Roosevelt to run, 335; organize Progressive Party, 336; nominate Roosevelt and Johnson, 337; popular vote of, 338; influence negligible in 1914, 342.

Protection, in Republican platform (1888), 170, 171; earnestly discussed by both parties, 170; enlarged by McKinley Bill, 174, 176; of unborn industries, 175; strongest in East, 177; rampant spirit for, in 1897, 254.

Pure food movement, 313, 314, 328.

Quay, Matthew S., chairman of Harrison campaign committee, 170, 171, 174; offended by Harrison, 213; completes partnership of manufacturers and voters, 232; selects Penrose for Senator, 253.

Railroads, development of, 10, 12, 68, 69, 92, 93; importance of, 16, 69; land grants to, 22, 24, 148; continental, 22, 25, 26, 143, 144, 145; hostility of the Grange, 68, 70; rate laws, 71, 72; agree upon standard time, 148; encourage immigration and colonization, 148, 149; regarded as quasi-public, 157, 159; national control of, 158; bargaining in rates, 165; and the Sherman Anti-Trust Law, 173; promote new settlements, 179; in the South after the Civil War, 204; controlled by a few men, 294.

Rainfall, importance of, 150, 179, 180, 182, 186.

Randall, Samuel J., 108, 138.

Rebates, railroad, forbidden by Elkins Law, 296.

Reciprocity, favorite scheme of Blaine, 175.

Reclamation of arid lands of the Southwest, 290, 291, 320.

Reconstruction, an inappropriate name for what took place, 39; no constitutional theory adequate to meet problems of, 44; must be judged by results, 44, 45; completion of, in formal sense, 46; not far advanced by 1870, 49; dominant type of leaders, 78; political superseded by constitutional, 85.

Reconstruction Acts of 1867, the, 43, 45, 47.

Reconstruction Governments, evils of, 50, 51, 61.

Reed, Thomas B., 172, 229, 240.

Referendum and initiative, 249, 250, 333, 334.

Regan, John H., 193.

Reid, Whitelaw, 56, 130.

Republican party, the, during the Civil War, 1, 2; called itself Union, 4, 32; paid for its disguise, 32; in the South after 1876, 54; new men in control, 78, 79; regains control of the House (1880), 108; but loses it again (1882), 117; dissensions in, 128; defeated in 1884, 133; elects President and majority in both houses in 1888, 171; suffers a landslide (1890), 185, 186; regains control of Senate and House, (1894), 229; platform in 1896, 234; dominates every branch of National Government for fourteen years, 244; the party of organized business, 252; approves the Spanish War, 279; elects Taft President (1908), 324, 325; revises tariff, 326, 327; dissatisfaction in, 327, 328; loses the House (1910), 329; renominates Taft (1912), 336.

Revels, Hiram R., negro Senator from Mississippi, 47.

River and Harbor Bill, 117.

Rockefeller, John D., gains chief control of petroleum traffic, 165, 166; aids cause of education in South, 201; methods of, 310, 321.

Roosevelt, Theodore, 128; steps out of Blaine campaign, 130; Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 265, 277; raises a regiment for Spanish War, 266; in Cuba, 270; early public career of, 276; Governor of New York, 277; a reformer of a new type, 277; Vice-President with McKinley, 280; succeeds to Presidency, 282; and the Hague Court, 283, 284; activity in securing Panama Canal, 286, 288; questionable course toward Colombia, 286, 288; attitude toward negroes, 289, 290; widely popular, 291; disliked by professional politicians, 291; dissolves Northern Securities Company, 296, 299; settles coal strike, 300; alienates party leaders, 302; wants nomination on his own account, 303; tries to modify Dingley Tariff, 304; nominated for President, 305; and elected, 306; declares he will not accept another nomination, 307; goes outside of United States territory, 316-17; receives the Nobel prize, 317; promotes second Hague Conference, 318; sends navy round the world, 319; holds conference of state governors at White House, 320; called "Theodore the Meddler," 322; his policies those of the people, 323; secures nomination of Taft for Presidency, 324, 325; goes to Africa, 329; formulates New Nationalism, 333; defeated in Republican convention, 336; nominated by Progressives, 337.

Root, Elihu, becomes Secretary of War, 274, 281; Secretary of State, 318; mentioned for Presidency, 324; presides over Chicago convention, 336.

Rough Riders, the, 266, 270, 277.

"Rum, Romanism, and rebellion," 133.

Rusk, Jeremiah M., 136, 157.

Russia, at war with Japan, 317.

Sackville-West, Sir Lionel, 170.

Salary grab, in Congress, 62.

Salisbury, Lord, in Venezuela case, 230, 231.

Sampson, Capt. William T., in blockade of Cuba, 265, 268, 269, 270, 272.

Schenck, Robert C., 55, 61.

Schley, Commodore Winfield Scott, in blockade of Cuba, 265, 268, 269, 272.

Schurz, Carl, leader of the Liberal Republicans, 56; introduces merit system, 86; reorganizes the Indian service, 86, 87; supports civil service reform, 112, 113; an anti-imperialist, 278.

Seal fisheries, 212.

Sewall, Arthur, 237.

Seymour, Horatio, 4; nominated for Presidency, 31; loyalty above question, 79.

Shafter, Gen. William R., 269, 270.

Sherman, James S., nominated for Vice-Presidency, 325, 336.

Sherman, John, Senator from Ohio, 66; Secretary of the Treasury, 89; proposed for the Presidency, 98, 99, 128; Secretary of State, 253.

Sherman, Gen. William T., 5.

Sherman Anti-Trust Law, the, enacted, 172, 173, 293; enforced under Roosevelt, 320, 321.

Sherman Silver Purchase Bill, 174, 218, 219, 220.

Silver, fall in value of, 88, 228; free coinage demanded, 181, 182; mines, output of, 181; coinage of, 217; demonetization of, called a crime, 225.

Sinclair, Upton, 311.

Slater, John F., creates fund for education of negro, 201.

Social Democratic party, 301.

Socialist Labor party, 301, 338.

South, the, before the war, 11, 12; price of its attempt at independence, 39; stubbornness of, 40; decrease in size of farms, 40, 41; government of, by army, 42; divided into five military districts, 43; new constitutions of its States, 46; readmission to Union, 47, 49; repudiation of debts, 51; normal politics Democratic, 52, 54, 79. See also New South.

South Dakota, admitted to Union, 152; first State to adopt initiative and referendum, 250.

Southern Pacific Railroad, 145, 148; passes into control of Union Pacific, 294, 295; merger dissolved, 330.

Spain, sends Gen. Weyler to Cuba, 260; embittered against United States by filibustering parties, 261; changes of Ministry in, 262; declines mediation, but recalls Gen. Weyler, 263; establishes a sort of autonomy for Cuba, 263; war with United States begun, 264; loses fleet at Manila, 267; and another at Santiago, 272; army at Santiago surrenders, 272; loses Cuba, Porto Rico, the Philippine Islands, and Guam, 273.

Squatters, 21, 155.

Stalwarts, the, support Conkling against Garfield, 103; claimed as friends by Guiteau, 105; relations with Arthur, 109, 126.

Standard Oil Company, the, 166, 167; suit against, brought by Ohio, 168; history of, 310; charges of extorting rebates, 311, 312; dissolved, 330, 331.

Standard time, adopted by American railroads, 148.

Stanford, Leland, 25.

Stanton, Edwin M., 3, 35.

Star route frauds, 103, 104, 105, 113.

Steel industry, the, 16, 297, 298.

Steffens, Lincoln, 310.

Stevens, Thaddeus, 30, 34.

Stevenson, Adlai E., Vice-President with Cleveland, 215; nominated with Bryan, 279.

Strathcona, Lord, interested in Canadian railways, 148.

Strikes, 121; Pullman, 222; at Cripple Creek, 222, 301; at Homestead, 299; in Pennsylvania coal fields, 299, 300.

Sumner, Charles, 34, 55.

Surplus, embarrassing, 93, 173; an incentive to extravagance, 116, 136, 138; easily relieved, 174; nearly exhausted, 216.

Taft, William II., decision as Circuit Judge against an industrial combination, 299; recalled from Philippines to be Secretary of War, 317; Roosevelt's choice for Presidency, 324; nominated and elected (1908), 325; urges tariff revision, 326, 327; alienates some of the Republican lenders, 327, 328; in the Pinchot-Ballinger dispute, 328, 329; pushes anti-trust suits, 330, 331; extends civil service, 331; negotiates arbitration treaties with Great Britain and France, 331, 332; renominated (1912), 336; badly defeated, 338.

Tanner, James ("Corporal"), 172.

Tarbell, Ida M., writes history of Standard Oil Company, 309, 310.

Tariff, the favorite national tax, 6, 7; basis of the rate of, 7; at the end of the war, 8; different views of, 97; influence of, in Presidential campaigns, 100; revision of, 114, 116, 117; as a source of revenue, 114, 115; attacks upon, 115, 116; commission created to investigate needs of, 117, 118; difficulties of constructing, 118, 119, 140; revision demanded, 169; McKinley Bill, 172-75; opposition to the new law, 184; a factor in political landslide of 1890, 186; McKinley Bill in danger, 215; tariff for revenue the winning issue in 1890 and 1892, 220; financial interest of manufacturers in, 233; the Dingley Bill, 253, 254, 255; the "mother of trusts," 303; revised by Republicans, 326, 327; reduced by Democrats, 339.

Taxes, as means of raising money, 6, 114, 115; authorized more reluctantly than loans, 6; often revised and increased, 7; difficulties of Congress with, 115.

Taylor, Hannis, 262.

Tennessee, readmitted to the Union, 45; escapes negro domination, 54.

Tenure-of-Office Act, 34, 35.

Texas, readmitted to Union, 47; through change in, after the Civil War, 204, 205.

Thurman, Allen G., 170.

Tilden, Samuel J., prosecutes the Tweed ring, 80; Democratic candidate for President in 1876, 80, 81; doubtful result of the election, 83, 84; unwilling to run in 1880, 99.

Timber Culture Laws, 155.

Tobacco Trust, 330, 331.

Transportation, a fundamental factor, 162; creates new standards of living, 162, 163; relation to the trusts, 164, 165; vital to frontier life, 180.

Treves, Sir Frederick, praises work in Canal Zone, 317.

Trusts, formation of, 163, 164; logical outcome of, 164; influence of transportation, 164, 165; whiskey and sugar, 166; evils of, social or political, 167; difficulty of regulating, 168; investigation ordered, 169; the aim of, 297; Chicago conference on, 298; and strikes, 299, 300; not all "bad," 302; tariff the mother of, 303; the menace of, 309; prosecution of, 320, 321.

Tweed, William M., 50, 60.

Underwood, Oscar W., 329, 330, 336.

Union League, of freedmen, 45.

Union Pacific Railroad, building of, 22, 24, 25; celebration of completion, 25; scandals of, 61; extended to Denver, 74; a national project, 142, 143; extended to the Gulf and into Oregon, 145; reconstructed by Harriman, 294.

United Mine Workers of America, 300.

United States Steel Corporation, 297, 298.

Utah, polygamy in, 154; admitted to the Union, 240, 290.

Vallandigham, Clement L., 4.

Venezuela, boundary dispute with Great Britain, 230-32; before the Hague Court, 284.

Villard, Henry, 144, 145.

Virginia, readmitted to Union, 47.

Waite, Gov. Davis H., 222, 228.

Wanamaker, John, 172, 253.

Washington, becomes a State, 152.

Washington, Booker T., 202, 290.

Watson, Thomas E., 193, 238.

Watterson, Henry, 56.

Weaver, James B., Greenback-Labor candidate for the Presidency, 101; leader in the People's Party, 209; Presidential candidate, 211, 216.

Wells, David A., 116.

Western Federation of Miners, in Cripple Creek strike, 301.

Weyler, Gen. Valeriano, 260, 261, 263.

Wheeler, William A., Vice-President with Hayes, 83.

Whiskey Ring, the, 62, 81.

Whiskey and Sugar Trusts, 166.

Wiley, Dr. Harvey, 314, 328.

Wilson, Henry, Vice-President in Grant's second term, 57.

Wilson, James, 314, 328.

Wilson, William L., 215; leader in tariff revision, 139, 220, 221; on free silver, 229.

Wilson, Woodrow, career of, 336, 337; nominated by Democrats for Presidency, 337; elected, 338; delivers message to Congress in person, 339; a coercive leader, 339; attitude toward Mexico, 340; neutrality in European war, 341, 342.

Windom, William L., 102, 172.

Woman suffrage, adopted by several States, 250, 334.

Wood, Gen. Leonard, 270, 282.

Woodford, Gen. Stewart L., Minister to Spain, 262, 263.

Wright, Carroll D., Commissioner of Labor, 122.

Wyoming, made a Territory, 149; a State, 152, 250.

Yellow fever, suppressed in Cuba, 282.