C. THE SUBJUNCTIVE (OR CONJUNCTIVE) MOOD.

(See § 25.)

§ 26. Since, in the best modern works of English Literature, we frequently find the Indicative employed instead of the Subjunctive in clauses of uncertainty and supposition, and since, with the exception of the verb to be, it is evidently the tendency of the English language to reject the distinction of the Subjunctive Mood, the student will encounter no small difficulty in learning the right use of the German Subjunctive, which is most extensively used, and gives often great power, conciseness, and elegance to the mode of speaking.

=The Subjunctive Mood= is used both in principal and subordinate clauses, and =denotes Uncertainty and Supposition=.

EXAMPLES.

+Man sagt er ~sei~ gestorben+ (see § 29). (Uncertainty.)

People say (i.e. it is rumoured) he is dead.

+Plato glaubte, daß nur ~ein~ Gott ~sei~.+ (Supposition.)

Plato thought that there was only one God, (but that it was a matter of doubt).

§ 27. =The Subjunctive expresses Command, Wish, and Concession.=

EXAMPLES.

+Er ~nehme~ seine Weite, wie’s Brauch ist!+ (Schiller.) (Command.)

Let him take his distance as it is customary!

+Gott ~sei~ mit dir!+ (Wish.)

God be with you!

+Er ~gehe~, wohin er Lust hat.+ (Concession.)

He may go wherever he pleases.

§ 28. =The Subjunctive is used in Indirect Speech= (oratio obliqua), i.e. when words which have been actually spoken are quoted not as they were spoken, but in substance only; it stands especially after the verbs +~sagen~+, to say; +~erzählen~+, to relate; +~melden~+, to report; +~berichten~+, to relate, to report; +~hören~+, to hear; as—

+Er sagte ihm, er ~sei~ ein Verschwender.+

He told him he was a spendthrift.

+Sie behauptete, sie ~habe~ den Brief nicht erhalten.+

She asserted that she had not got the letter.

+Sein Freund meldete, daß er nicht kommen ~könne~, mich zu besuchen.+

His friend reported that he could not come to see me.

§ 29. =The Subjunctive is used when the statement made in the subordinate clause is intended to be represented not as a fact, but as a mere idea, as a mere conception of the person speaking.= We find it, therefore, especially after verbs denoting a request, a wish, a hope, an apprehension, a permission, an advice, and a command; as—

+meinen+, to mean. +glauben+, to believe. +vermuten+, to presume. +zweifeln+, to doubt. +scheinen+, to seem. +hoffen+, to hope. +fürchten+, to fear. +wollen+, to be willing. +bitten+, to ask. +befehlen+, to command. +verlangen+, to demand. +ermahnen+, to admonish. +raten+, to advise. +bestehen+, to insist upon,

And others of a like meaning.

EXAMPLES.

+Lassen Sie uns ~hoffen~, daß unser Streben von Erfolg ~sein werde~.+

Let us hope that our endeavours may be successful.

+Ich bat ihn, daß er mir ~helfen möge~.+

I asked him to help me.

+Ich ~fürchtete~, daß er ein Bein ~gebrochen habe~.+

I was afraid that he had broken a leg.

+Wir ~bitten~, daß der Gefangene frei ~gelassen werde~.+

We request that the prisoner be released.

+Er ~zweifelt~ daran, daß man ihn für unschuldig ~erklären werde~.+

He doubts if he will be declared innocent.

+Wir werden stets ~verlangen~, daß man uns unsere Rechte ~gewähre~.+

We shall always demand that our rights be given to us.

+Ich ~rate~ dir, daß du fleißiger ~werdest~.+

I advise you to become more industrious.

+Ich ~bestehe darauf~, daß sich der Lord ~entferne~.+ (Schiller.)

I insist upon the Lord’s retiring.

§ 30. With regard to the Tense in which the Subjunctive ought to stand in subordinate clauses of the character mentioned above, the general rule is, that—

=We use the same tense of the Subjunctive Mood which, in direct speech, or in a principal clause, would be used in the Indicative Mood=,

except that

=the Perfect of the Subjunctive is used instead of the Imperfect of the Indicative, and that the Pluperfect of the Indicative is changed into the Perfect of the Subjunctive, with the help of one of the conjunctions +ehe+, +bevor+, and +nachdem+.=

The following table will make this clear:—

Direct Speech. Indirect Speech.

+Er sagte: »Ich lese.«+ +Er sagte, er lese.+ (Present (Present.) Subj.)

+Er sagte: »Ich habe gelesen.«+ +Er sagte, er habe gelesen.+ (Perfect.) (Perfect Subj.)

+Er sagte: »Ich werde lesen.«+ +Er sagte, er werde lesen.+ (First Future.) (First Future Subjunctive.)

+Er sagte: »Ich werde gelesen +Er sagte, er werde gelesen haben+ haben+ (Second Future), +wenn (Second Future Subj.), +wenn sein mein Freund mich abholen wird.«+ Freund ihn abholen werde+ (First (First Future.) Future Subjunctive).

But— But—

+Er sagte: »Ich las, als sein +Er sagte, er =habe gelesen=, als Freund schrieb.«+ (Imperfect.) sein Freund =geschrieben habe=.+ (Perfect Subjunctive.)

+Er sagte: »Ich hatte gelesen+ +Er sagte, er =habe gelesen=+ (Pluperfect), +als mein Freund (Perfect Subjunctive), +=ehe= schrieb.«+ (Imperfect.) sein Freund =geschrieben habe=.+ (Perfect Subjunctive.)

It will be seen, therefore, that =the verb= in the subordinate clause =stands either in the Present, in the Perfect, or in the Future=.

EXAMPLES.

+Der Diener antwortete, er ~sei~ nicht imstande die Arbeit zu thun, denn er ~sei~ zu schwach.+ (Present Subj.)

The servant answered that he was unable to do the work, for he was too weak.

+Er erzählte mir, er ~habe~ ein Unglück ~gehabt~.+ (Perfect Subj.)

He told me he had met with a misfortune.

+Sie behauptete, daß sie nie in ihrem Leben krank ~gewesen sei~.+ (Perfect Subj.)

She affirmed that she had never been ill in all her life.

+Er sagte, daß er sich um eine Stelle bewerben ~werde~.+ (First Future.)

He said that he was going to apply for a situation.

§ 31. =The Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, however, must be used instead of the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the Conditional instead of the Future Subjunctive=, when any ambiguity might arise as to the mood employed, that is to say in cases where the form of the Present, of the Perfect, or of the Future is identical both in the Indicative and the Subjunctive Mood. For example, in the sentence—

»+Sie sagte mir, ihre Töchter ~gingen~ niemals auf Bälle+;«

‘She said to me that her daughters never went to balls;’

the verb +~gingen~+ stands in the Imperfect Subjunctive and not in the Present, because the third person plural of the Present Indicative and the corresponding person of the Present Subjunctive are identical in the conjugation of this verb. Both are »+~sie gehen~+,« the verb, therefore, must be put in the Imperfect Subjunctive to show clearly the mood employed.

§ 32. =The Subjunctive is employed in adverbial clauses of purpose and of manner=, when the subordinate clause generally begins with the conjunctions +~daß~+, +~auf daß~+, +~damit~+, and +~als ob~+; as—

+Du sollst deinen Vater und deine Mutter ehren, ~auf daß~ dir’s ~wohlgehe~ und du lange ~lebest~ auf Erden.+

Thou shalt honour thy father and thy mother, that thou mayest prosper and thy days be long on earth.

+Ist es nicht, ~als ob~ dies Volk mich zum Gott ~mache~?+ (Schiller.)

Does it not seem as if the people meant to make a God of me?

§ 33. =The Imperfect Subjunctive and the Pluperfect Subjunctive= are used to express something possible, or something capable of being done, also to denote a mere supposition on the part of the speaker, or for the purpose of stating an opinion with caution or modesty; as—

+Es ~könnte~ sein, daß er nicht zu Hause ~wäre~.+

Literally: It might be possible that he were not at home, i.e. He may possibly not be at home.

+Ich ~hätte~ wohl Lust, ihm einen Besuch zu machen.+

I should like indeed to pay him a visit.

+Ich ~wüßte~ wohl, was zu thun ~wäre~.+

I fancy I know what ought to be done.

+Es ~wäre~ vielleicht besser, das Unternehmen aufzugeben.+

Perhaps it would be better to give up the undertaking.

§ 34. =To express a wish= we use the Present Subjunctive, when we believe in the fulfilment of the wish, but the Imperfect Subjunctive, when we want to indicate that the fulfilment of the wish is unlikely, and even impossible; as—

+Gott ~sei~ mit dir!+

God be with you!

+~Möge~ er bald gesund werden!+

May he soon recover his health!

+Lang ~lebe~ der König!+

Long live the king!

+Gott ~helfe~ mir!+ (Luther.)

May God help me!

But with the Imperfect Subjunctive:

+~Möchte~ er bald gesund werden!+

Would he might soon recover his health!

+Wenn er doch noch ~lebte~!+

I would he were still alive!

+~Möchte~ er bald kommen!+

Would he might soon come!

§ 35. It must always be remembered that both moods (the Indicative and the Subjunctive) may stand in Principal Clauses as well as in Subordinate Clauses, since their use depends alone on the nature of the statement we wish to make (see § 25). Nor has the notion connected with the verb standing in the principal clause an absolute influence on the mood to be used in the subordinate clause. The Indicative stands in subordinate clauses not merely after verbs expressing Certainty, but also after such as denote Belief, Supposition, and Doubt, when the statement contained in the subordinate clause is represented objectively, i.e. as being based upon a fact, or as being, in the speaker’s opinion, not open to any doubt. So we say—

+Ich glaube, daß er in der Schlacht geblieben ~ist~+ (not +sei+).

I believe that he was killed in battle.

+Ich weiß nicht, ob er ~lebt~, oder ob er tot ~ist~.+

I do not know whether he is alive, or whether he is dead.

+Ich zweifle, daß der Kranke ~genesen wird~.+

I doubt if the patient will recover.

+Ich hoffe, daß er sich wohl ~befindet~.+

I hope that he is well.

But when the statement contained in the subordinate clause is represented subjectively, i.e. as being based upon a mere idea or belief, the correctness of which is still open to doubt, the Subjunctive must be used; as—

+Man glaubt, man sagt+, etc., +er ~sei~ in der Schlacht geblieben.+

People believe, people say, etc., that he was killed in battle, (but it is still doubtful).

+Er fürchtet, daß man ihn verraten ~habe~.+

He is afraid that they have betrayed him, (yet he does not know).

D. THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.

§ 36. The Conditional is the mood for representing a state or an event as dependent on another, which other, however, is not based upon a real fact, but is a mere hypothesis or supposition. As such we use not only the First and Second Conditional (+ich würde+, etc.), as given in the tables of verbs, but also the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive. The latter two, in fact, may be called the simple forms of the Conditional Mood, and the former (+ich würde+, etc.) the compound forms. Every true conditional statement consists of two clauses: (a) the hypothetical clause, which contains the supposition, (b) the conditioning clause, which contains the inference drawn from that supposition; as—

If I had money (hypothetical clause),

I should like to travel (conditioning clause).

The Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used in both clauses, but the First and Second Conditional (+ich würde+, etc.—see the tables of verbs) can only be used in conditioning clauses.

The conditioning clause is often introduced by »+so+.«

EXAMPLES.

+Wenn ich Geld ~hätte~, ~ginge~ ich gern auf Reisen+ (or +~würde~ ich gern auf Reisen gehen+).

If I had money, I should like to travel.

+Wenn es heute schönes Wetter ~gewesen wäre~, so ~würden wir ausgegangen sein~.+

If the weather had been fine to-day, we should have gone out.

+Dieser Mann ~könnte~ glücklicher ~sein~, wenn er das Spiel nicht zu sehr ~liebte~.+

This man might be happier, if he were not too fond of gambling.

+Er ~würde~ gesund ~sein~+ (or +er ~wäre~ gesund+), +wenn er mäßiger ~lebte~+.

He would be healthy, if he were more temperate.

§ 37. The Conditional is sometimes used elliptically; as—

+Ja, ich würde gekommen sein!+

Yes, I should have come! (i.e. if I had been able to do so, understood).

+Unter den Umständen hätte ich es gewiß gethan.+

I am sure, under the circumstances I should have done it (i.e. if I had been placed in the same situation).

+~Wäre~ ich reich, ~würde~ ich Sie sofort bezahlen.+

Were I rich, I should pay you directly.

SYNOPSIS OF THE CHANGES WHICH THE GERMAN SPELLING HAS UNDERGONE THROUGH THE GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS OF 1880.

+1. Regeln und Wörterverzeichnis für die deutsche Rechtschreibung zum Gebrauch in den preußischen Schulen. Berlin, Weidmansche Buchhandlung. 2. Regeln und Wörterverzeichnis für die deutsche Rechtschreibung zum Gebrauch in den bayerischen Schulen. München, Expedition des Kgl. Zentral-Schulbücher-Verlags.+

A. +Vokale.+ (Vowels.)

Write.

+=Ä=, =Ö=, =Ü=+

(instead of +Ae+, +Oe+, +Ue+) in: +die Äpfel+ (apples); +die Öfen+ (ovens, stoves); +der Überrock+ (overcoat), etc. In foreign words +=ä=+, +=ü=+ (for Greek and French ai and French u) in: +der Pädagog+ (pedagogue); +der Kapitän+ (captain); +die Lektüre+ (reading), etc.

+=ay=+

(instead of +ai+) in: +Bayern+ (Bavaria); +der Bayer+ (the Bavarian); +bayerisch+, adj. (Bavarian), and derivatives.

+=ei=+

(instead of +ai+) in: +der Heide+ (heathen); +die Heide+ (heath); +das Getreide+ (grain); +der Weizen+ (wheat), etc.—=But=: +die Bai+ (bay); +der Hai+ (shark); +der Hain+ (grove); +der Kaiser+ (emperor); +der Laib+ (loaf); +der Laich+ (spawn [of fish]); +das Laichen+ (spawning); +die Laichzeit+ (spawning-time); +der Laie+ (layman); +der Mai+ (May); +die Maid+ (maid, maiden); +der Mais+ (maize); +maischen+ (to mash [in brewing]); +die Saite+ (string); +der Waid+ (dyer’s woad); +der+ or +die Waise+ (orphan [boy or girl]), and derivatives.

=Nouns terminating in +-ee+= and +=-ie=+—

take in the plural +=en=+, which inflection forms a separate syllable, as: +die Armee´+ (army), pl. +die Armee´en+ (armies); +der+ or +die See´+ (lake or sea), pl. +die See´en+ (lakes or seas); +die Melodie´+ (melody), pl. +die Melodie´en+ (melodies); +die Theorie´+ (theory), pl. +die Theorie´en+ (theories), etc. =But=: +das Komitee´+ (committee), pl. +die Komitee´s+ (committees); +das Knie´+ (knee), pl. +die Knie´e+.

+=eu=+

1. (instead of +äu+) in: +deuchten+ (to appear, to seem); +mir deucht+ (it seems to me, methinks); +ihm deuchte+ (he thought); +(durch)-bleuen+ (to give [one] a hearty drubbing, to beat [one] black and blue); [=but=: +(durch)-bläuen+ (to make or dye blue)]; +der Greuel+ (horror); +leugnen+ (to deny); +verleumden+ (to slander), etc.

2. in the termination +=eur=+ (sounded as in French), in: +der Commandeur+ (commander); +der Redacteur+ (editor), etc.

+=i=+

(instead of +y+) in: +der Gips+ (plaster of Paris); +die Silbe+ (syllable); +der Sirup+ (syrup); +der Vampir+ (vampire), etc. [Comp. +=ay=+.]

+=ie=+

(instead of +i+) in the verbal termination +=ie´ren=+, as in: +studie´ren+ (to study); +spazie´ren+ (to go for a walk); +marschie´ren+ (to march); +probie´ren+ (to try, to test); +hantie´ren+ (to handle, to manage), etc.—and in their derivatives, as in: +die Hantie´rung+ (management, business, profession), etc.; also in: +gieb+ (give), and derivatives.

+=ou=+

(pronounced as in French, instead of +u+) in words coming from the French, as +die Fourage+ (forage); +der Fourier+ (quarter master); +der Fournier+ (veneer), etc.

=Only one Vowel (instead of two)—=

in: +bar+ (bare, destitute of; [of money]: in cash); +die Barschaft+ (ready money, cash in hand); +das Maß+ (measure); +das Schaf+ (sheep); +die Schar+ (troop, herd); +der Star+ (starling; [in medicine]: cataract); +die Wage+ (scales); +die Ware+ (goods); +der Herd+ (hearth); +die Herde+ (herd, flock); +das Kamel+ (camel); +das Los+ (lot, fate); +losen+ (to cast lots); +die Losung+ (the casting or drawing of lots); +der Schoß+ (lap, middle; [of dress]: skirt, or tail); etc.

B. +Konsonanten.+ (Consonants.)

+=d=+

(instead of +dt+) in: +der Tod+ (death); +todkrank+ (sick unto death); +todmüde+ (tired to death); +die Todsünde+ (deadly or mortal sin); +tödlich+ (deadly, mortal, fatal), etc.—Comp. letter +=t=+ (instead of +dt+).

+=f=+

(instead of +ph+) in: +Adolf+ (Adolphus); +der Elefant+ (elephant); +der Fasan+ (pheasant); +Rudolf+ (Ralph); +Westfalen+ (Westphalia), etc.—=But=: +der Epheu+ (ivy) from the old German word +Ebheu+.

+=h=+

1. =+h+ remains as a sign of lengthening a syllable=:—

(a) =In syllables beginning with a t-sound and containing a long vowel, but not a diphthong or a double vowel=, as in: +die That+ (deed); +die Thräne+ (tear); +der Thron+ (throne); +der Thor+ (fool); +das Thor+ (gate); +thun+ (to do); +that+ (did); +gethan+ (done), etc. [Comp. +=h=+, 2 (a).]

(b) before +=l=+, +=m=+, +=n=+, and +=r=+, as in: +allmählich+ (gradually); +befehlen+ (to command); +nehmen+ (to take); +wohnen+ (to live, to reside); +lehren+ (to teach), etc. =Exceptions=: +die Feme+ (an old secret criminal court in Westphalia) and derivatives, as: +der Femrichter+ (a judge of that court), and derivatives.

(c) in: +die Fehde+ (feud, quarrel); +die Mahd+ (mowing), from +mähen+ (to mow); +der Draht+ (wire) from +drehen+ (to turn); +die Naht+ (seam), from +nähen+ (to sew), and other words derived from verbs containing an aspirated +h+.

(d) =in a few proper names=, as in: +Bertha+, +Günther+, +Martha+, +Mathilde+, +Theobald+, +Theodor+, etc.

(e) =in many nouns originally Greek=, as: +die Kathedra´le+ (cathedral); +das Thema+ (theme); +die Theologie´+; +die Theorie´+; +das Thermome´ter+; +der Pa´nther+, etc.

2. +=h=+ =is not retained after= +=t=+:—

(a) =in syllables beginning with a t-sound and containing a diphthong or a double vowel=, as in: +der Tau+ (dew); +das Tau+ (rope); +der Teer+ (tar); +teeren+ (to tar); +der+ or +das Teil+ (part, or share); +teuer+ (dear); +das Tier+ (animal); +verteidigen+ (to defend), etc., and derivatives.—=Exception=: +der Thee+ (tea), and derivatives.

(b) in the suffixes +=tum=+ and +=tüm=+ (formerly +thum+ and +thüm+), as in: +das Eigentum+ (property); +das Königtum+ (kingdom); +das Ungetüm+ (monster), etc.

(c) =at the end of syllables, and at the beginning of syllables before a short vowel=, as in:—+die Armut+ (poverty); +der Atem+ (breath); +atmen+ (to breathe); +die Blüte+ (blossom); +die Flut+ (flood); +das Gerät+ (tools); +die Glut+ (glow); +der Kot+ (dirt); +das Lot+ (a weight of half an ounce, now obsolete); +der Met+ (mead); +die Miete+ (rent; a corn or hay-stack; mite); +der Mut+ (courage); +die Not+ (need); +nötigen+ (to urge; to invite; to compel); +der+ or +die Pate+ (god-father or god-mother); +der Rat+ (advice); +raten+ (to advise; to guess); +das Rätsel+ (riddle); +rot+ (red); +die Röte+ (redness); +die Rute+ (rod); +der Turm+ (tower); +der Wert+ (value); +wert+ (worth, dear); +der Wirt+ (host, landlord); +die Wut+ (rage), and derivatives, as: +ratlos+ (without advice or means: helpless); +wertvoll+ (valuable, precious); +das Wirtshaus+ (inn), etc.

=Mark well=: +hurra!+ (hurra!).

1. (instead of +c+) =in many words originally Greek=, as in: +die Akademie´+, (academy); +pra´ktisch+ (practical); +die Arithmeti´k+ (arithmetic); +die Physi´k+ (natural philosophy), etc.—=But=: +der Chara´kter+; +die Melancholie´+.

2. (instead of +c+ and +qu+) =in many words originally Latin or French=, but which have become quite germanised, and are now looked upon as altogether German words, as: +der Advoka´t+ (lawyer); +das Boske´tt+ (thicket) from the French: le bosquet; +das Loka´l+ (locality); +das Pu´blikum+ (public); +vaka´nt+ (vacant); +der Vulka´n+ (volcano), etc.—More especially in words terminating in +=...kel=+, as in: +der Arti´kel+; +die Parti´kel+; +die Flo´skel+ (flourish), pl. +die Flo´skeln+ (fine words, frequently made use of with a deceptive purpose).

3. (instead of +c+) in words with the prefixes +=Ko-=+, +=Kol-=+, +=Kom-=+, +=Kon-=+, +=Kor-=+, and also in syllables containing a +=k=+-sound followed by +=t=+ (+=...kt=+), as in: +die Kopie´+ (copy); +die Kolonie´+ (colony); +der Kommanda´nt+ (commander); +der Ko´nstabler+ (constable); +das Konze´rt+ (concert); +die Korresponde´nz+ (correspondence), etc.; +die Didakti´k+ (didactics); +das Edi´kt+ (edict), etc.—=But=: +das Di´ctum+, because not germanised, etc.—

=Mark well=: +der Kaffee´+ (coffee), =but=: +das Café+ (a fine restaurant where mostly coffee is served).

=NOTE.= In foreign words which have preserved a foreign pronunciation, or certain foreign forms of spelling or inflection, do not use +=k=+, but +=c=+, as in: +die Campagne+ (campaign); +der Commi´s+ (clerk); +das Flaco´n+ (smelling-bottle); +der Redakteu´r+ (editor); +die Adjecti´va+ (adjectives), etc.

=Doubtful Orthography.= We find: +Konze´rt+ and +Conce´rt+, n.; +Ka´rzer+ (prison in schools and universities) and +Ca´rcer+, m.; +Komitee´+ and +Comite´+, n.; +Kompanie´+ and +Compagnie´+, f.; +conze´ntrisch+ (concentric) and +conce´ntrisch+; +Konzessio´n+ and +Concessio´n+, f.; +Konzi´l+ (council) and +Conci´l+, n.; +klassifizie´ren+ (to classify) and +classificie´ren+; +Ku´rsus+ (course of study) and +Cu´rsus+, m.; +korre´kt+ and +corre´ct+; +Konjunktio´n+ and +Conjunctio´n+, etc., etc.

From these examples it will be seen that the mode of spelling is fluctuating between +=k=+ and +=c=+, and +=c=+ and +=z=+, in many words which originally contained the letter =c=. =The first way is to be preferred, and strongly recommended, in all the words given above, and many others in common use that contain a= +=k=+ =or a= +=z=+=-sound and are quite germanised in spelling and inflection.= (Comp. C. 3.)

Use also +=k=+ instead of +=c=+ in words of Greek origin which have preserved the +=k=+-sound, as:—+Anekdo´te+, +katho´lisch+, +Komö´die+, +Diale´kt+, etc.—[Comp. B, letter +=k=+, 1.]—And write +=c=+ and +=cq=+, as before, in: +A´cce´nt+, +A´ccusati´v+, +A´cquisitio´n+, etc.—

+=-nis=+

(instead of +niß+) as a suffix of nouns, as in: +das Ereignis+ (event); +das Begräbnis+ (burial); +das Verhältnis+ (relation); +das Vermä´chtnis+ (bequest), etc.—

=The prefix= +miß...+, however, remains unchanged, as in: +das Mi´ßverständnis+ (misunderstanding), pl. +die Mi´ßverständnisse+.

+=s=+

(instead of +ß+) in +deshalb+ (therefore); +deswegen+ (therefore, for this reason); +indes+ (meanwhile, whilst; however); +unterdes+ (meanwhile, whilst); +weshalb+ (why); +weswegen+ (why), etc.—

+=sſ=+

(instead of +ſſ+) in: +dasſelbe+ (the same); +desſelben+ (of the same); +diesſeits+ (on this side), etc.

+=st=+

(instead of +ſt+) in: +Dienstag+ (Tuesday); +Geburtstag+ (birthday); +Frühlingstag+ (spring-day), and other compound nouns in which +s+ occurs as a sign of the Genitive and is followed by a +t+.

+=ſſ=+

between two vowels, the first one of which is short, as in +laſſen+ (to let, to leave); +die Taſſe+ (cup); +trotz deſſen+ (in spite of that); +weſſen+ (whose), etc.—

+=ß=+

1. between two vowels, the first one of which is long, as in: +bü´ßen+ (to atone for); +schießen+ (to shoot), etc.

2. before +t+, and at the end of words, as in: +er läßt+ (he leaves); +ihr laßt+ (you leave); +gebüßt+ (atoned for); +laß+ (let); +der Kuß+ (kiss), etc.—

+=t=+

(instead of +dt+) in: +der Tote+ (a dead man or person); +tot+ (dead); +töten+ (to kill); +der Totschlag+ (manslaughter); +der Totengräber+ (gravedigger), etc.—Comp. letter +=d=+ (instead of +dt+.)

+=t=+

(instead of +d+) in: +das Brot+ (bread).

+=t=+

(and never +z+) in the accented and original Latin combinations:—tia´, tie´, tio´, as in +martia´lisch+, +Patie´nt+, m., +Natio´n+, f., +Traditio´n+, f., +Motio´n+, etc.

=But write=: +Gra´zie+, +Ingredie´nzien+, etc., =e being unaccented=.

+=z=+

1. (instead of +tz+) after a long vowel, as in: +die Bre´zel+ (biscuit in the shape of a twisted ring, cracknel); +du´zen+ (to call a person thou), etc.

2. (instead of +Cz+ and +Sc+) in: +der Zar+ (czar); +das Zepter+ (sceptre), etc.

3. (instead of +ce+) =regularly at the end of foreign words with German pronunciation= and terminating in French in =ce=, and in Latin in =tia=, =tius=, =tium=, =cius=, =cium=, as in: +das Benefi´z+, +die Justi´z+, +das Hospi´z+, +die Mili´z+, +die Noti´z+; +die Differe´nz+, +die Sente´nz+, +die Vaka´nz+; +die Fina´nzen+, +die Novi´ze+, +die Allia´nz, die Dista´nz+, etc.—(=But= with foreign pronunciation: +Alliance+, +Distance+, etc.)

4. also in words quite germanised, as: +der Bezi´rk+ (district, circuit); +die La´nze+ (lance); +die Polizei´+ (police); +der Polizi´st+ (policeman); +das Terzero´l+ (pocket-pistol); +das Terze´tt+ (trio), etc.—=But write=: +Cä´sar+, +die Cäsu´r+ (cesure, cesura); +die Ce´der+, +die Celebritä´t+, +die Censu´r+ (censorship), +censie´ren+ (to censure, to review), +der Ce´ntime´ter+, +die Cerea´lien+ (cereals), +das Cöliba´t+, +der Ci´rkumfle´x+, +das Lyce´um+, etc.

5. (instead of +c+) in verbs terminating in +=...ie´ren=+, as: +fabrizie´ren+ (to manufacture); +musizie´ren+ (to make music); +publizie´ren+ (to publish), etc.

=Note.= In many words which originally contained the letter +=c=+, the mode of spelling is unsettled and fluctuating between +=c=+ and +=z=+, as in: +Medizi´n+ and +Medici´n+, f.; +das Rezept+ and +Recept+, n. (prescription, recipe); +Prinzi´p+ and +Princi´p+, n. (principle); +Proze´nt+ and +Proce´nt+, n. (per cent.); +Proze´ß+ and +Proce´ß+, m., etc.—[=Read carefully= B, Note to letter +=k=+, also letter +=t=+ of B, and General Observations on the Spelling of Foreign Words, where additional examples are given.]